Methods for Characterization of Dislocations in 3 Dimensions

Dislocations are an important class of crystal defects that have a significant impact on the mechanical, chemical, kinetic, and electronic properties of materials. The study of dislocations has historically been rooted in Transmission Electron Microscope based approaches. However, TEM gives limited information about the 3-dimensional nature of dislocations and has strict geometric and experimental constraints on the sample size. To overcome this limitation, other methods of characterization have been employed to probe dislocations in 3 dimensions. In this paper we will review methods used to probe dislocations in 3 dimensions, including both x-ray and electron-based techniques. The applications and limitations of the techniques will be discussed, and some future prospects will be presented. Particular attention will be paid to the ability of techniques to distinguish charged dislocation cores in ionic crystals.