Critical Materials and Sustainability for Battery Technologies

In this paper, the sustainability aspects related to emerging battery technologies and advancements is explored. The understanding of the influence of materials choices, energy, and the impact upon the environment in establishing a complete circular supply chain for battery materials is required. This involves assessing the significance and shortage of materials, the manufacturing process for both materials and batteries, their longevity, and the potential for recycling and reusing materials at the end of their life cycle.<br/><br/>Circular material choices and supply are currently heavily influenced by cost. However, as different minerals and materials are listed as critical on various global lists, it may be necessary to consider alternatives. Lithium, graphite, phosphate, silicon, and cobalt are all included in the EU and UK critical materials lists, highlighting supply chain risks and their high economic importance. By following the principles of sustainability - reduce, reuse, recover, and recycling - we can work towards reducing our reliance on these materials. For instance, sodium-ion batteries are being explored as an alternative, using sodium, iron, and hard carbon in place of lithium, cobalt, and graphite. While this approach leads to significantly lower material costs, it's important to note that initial life cycle assessments (LCAs) show that these batteries have a higher embedded carbon footprint per kWh. Therefore, it is important to consider other sustainability factors such as recyclability and lifespan.<br/>In this paper, we explore design for disassembly considerations for sodium-ion and lithium-ion batteries. Possible recycling routes, materials recovery, and reuse scenarios for these materials. The design of cells and electrodes often affects recovery rates, so we suggest routes for electrode manufacturing, compositions, and design considerations to optimize performance and material recovery rates.