Open-Air Spray Deposition with Rapid Plasma Curing for High-Throughput Manufacturing of Low-Cost Perovskite Solar Modules

Successful commercialization of perovskite solar devices requires significant focus on scalable, low-cost manufacturing techniques. The solution processability of the perovskite layer yields a compelling candidate for low-cost solar energy production, though efforts to develop complementary low-cost transport layers, electrodes, and barrier layers are essential. Ultrasonic spray deposition provides a platform for high-throughput production, complemented with open-air plasma curing for rapid crystallization as previously demonstrated in rapid spray plasma processing (RSPP) of perovskite films.^[1]-[3] Large-area spray deposition paired with ultrafast plasma-assisted crystallization enables processing speeds up to 20 cm/s, demonstrating the highest throughput and lowest cost perovskite manufacturing method. However, remaining vacuum-dependent transport layer and electrode depositions—including sputtering and thermal evaporation—create significant bottlenecks in production with elevated module costs.<br/><br/>In this work, open-air spray deposition with rapid plasma and near infrared curing sources are employed throughout the entire thin-film architecture for high-throughput production of low-cost additive-free inverted p-i-n perovskite devices. Ultrasonic spray deposition with rapid plasma curing is utilized for transparent conducting oxide (TCO) front electrode and perovskite layer production, meanwhile spray deposition with near infrared curing is employed across the transport layers and rear metal electrode. Validation of individual film morphologies and optoelectronic properties demonstrate large-area defect-free films deposited at linear throughputs of 10 – 20 cm/s. TCO front electrodes with &gt;90% visible transmittance and Haack figure of merit (T10/R_SH) of 0.01 Ohm^-1 are achieved with &gt;80% fill factor compatible transport layers, enabling 20% device efficiencies and &gt;18% module efficiencies across 25 cm².<br/><br/>Complementary technoeconomic analysis at 100 MW production scale demonstrates &gt;50% cost reduction employing the developed open-air manufacturing techniques compared to conventional vacuum-based manufacturing. The high-throughput techniques enable reduced dependence on equipment, facilities, and labor costs, yielding considerable economies of scale beyond 1 GW production. The open-air spray deposition platform for perovskite module production provides a pathway towards reduced levelized cost of energy for photovoltaics below $0.02/kWhr.<br/><br/>[1] Hilt, F., Hovish, M.Q., Rolston, N., Bruning, K., Tassone, C.J., and Dauskardt, R.H. “Rapid Route to Efficient, Scalable, and Robust Perovskite Photovoltaics in Air.” <i>Energy Environ. Sci.</i>, <b>2018</b>.<br/>[2] Hovish, M.Q., Rolston, N., Bruning, K., Hilt, F., Tassone, C.J., and Dauskardt, R.H. “Crystallization Kinetics of Rapid Spray Plasma Processed Multiple Cation Perovskites in Open Air.” <i>J. Mater. Chem. A</i>, <b>2020</b>.<br/>[3] Rolston, N., Scheideler, W.J., Flick, A.C., Chen, J.P., Elmaraghi, H., Sleugh, A., Zhao, O., Woodhouse, M., and Dauskardt, R.H. “Rapid Open-Air Fabrication of Perovskite Solar Modules.” <i>Joule</i>, <b>2020</b>.