Exploring the Impact of Graphene and Other 2D Materials on the Immune System

The discovery of graphene twenty years ago sparked a revolution in materials science and beyond. Due to their versatile properties, graphene and its derivatives as well as other two-dimensional (2D) materials are currently being explored for a wide range of applications including drug delivery, imaging, tissue engineering, and biosensing. To this end, close attention to the biocompatibility of these materials is required. In particular, understanding how 2D materials interact with and/or modulate the human immune system is of fundamental importance as the immune system represents the first line of cellular defense against pathogens and other foreign agents. Here we will discuss studies conducted in the EU-funded Graphene Flagship project on the biocompatibility of 2D materials (Fadeel et al., 2018; Lin et al., 2024). In particular, we will highlight recent studies on the interactions between graphene oxide and phagocytic cells of the innate immune system. We will also discuss results obtained using other 2D materials including transition metal dichalcogenides (MoS₂ and WS₂) and transition metal carbides and nitrides (Ti₃C₂ MXenes) with emphasis on the innate immune responses to these materials. Biocompatibility assessment of novel heterofunctional 2D materials prepared in the EU-funded PERSEUS project to enable X-ray-triggered cancer therapy will also be discussed. Taken together, these examples will shed light on the biocompatibility (and degradability) of several different 2D materials.<br/><br/>Further reading:<br/><br/>Fadeel B, et al. Safety Assessment of Graphene-Based Materials: Focus on Human Health and the Environment. ACS Nano. 2018;12(11):10582-10620.<br/><br/>Lin H, et al. Environmental and Health Impacts of Graphene and Other Two-Dimensional Materials: A Graphene Flagship Perspective. ACS Nano. 2024;18(8):6038-6094.